“Modernismo Brasileiro”

O Modernismo Brasileiro é um movimento de amplo espectro cultural, desencadeado tardiamente nos anos 20, nele convergindo elementos das vanguardas acontecidas na Europa antes da Primeira Guerra Mundial - C2i0N0e, Cubismo e Futurismo - assimiladas antropofagicamente em fragmentos justapostos e misturados.
A predominância de valores expressionistas presentes nas obras de precursores como Lasar Segall, Anita Malfatti e Victor Brecheret e no avançar do nosso Modernismo, a convergência de elementos cubo-futuristas e posteriormente a emergência do surrealismo que estão na pintura de Tarsila do Amaral, Vicente do Rego Monteiro e Ismael Nery. É interessante observar que a disciplina e a ordem da composição cubista constituem estrutura básica das obras de Tarsila, Antonio Gomide e Di Cavalcanti. No avançar dos anos 20, a pintura dos modernistas brasileiros vai misturar ao revival das artes egípcia, pré colombiana e vietnamita, elementos do Art Déco.
São Paulo se caracteriza como o centro das idéias modernistas, onde se encontra o fermento do novo. Do encontro de jovens intelectuais com artistas plásticos eclodirá a vanguarda modernista. Diferentemente do Rio de Janeiro, reduto da burguesia tradicionalista e conservadora, São Paulo, incentivado pelo progresso e pelo afluxo de imigrantes italianos será o cenário propício para o desenvolvimento do processo do Modernismo. Este processo teve eventos como a primeira exposição de arte moderna com obras expressionistas de Lasar Segall em 1913, o escândalo provocado pela exposição de Anita Malfatti entre dezembro de 1917 e janeiro de 1918 e a 'descoberta' do escultor Victor Brecheret em 1920. Com maior ou menor peso estes três artistas constituem, no período heróico do Modernismo Brasileiro, os antecedentes da Semana de 22.
A Semana de Arte Moderna de 22 é o ápice deste processo que visava atualização das artes, e a sua identidade nacional. Pensada por Di Cavalcanti como um evento que causasse impacto e escândalo. Esta Semana proporcionaria as bases teóricas que contribuirão muito para o desenvolvimento artístico e intelectual da Primeira Geração Modernista e o seu encaminhamento, nos anos 30 e 40, na fase da Modernidade Brasileira.

Di Cavalcanti

Nasceu no Rio de Janeiro em 1897.
O pintor Emiliano Di Cavalcanti nasceu em 6 de setembro de 1897. Naquela época, o panorama das artes plásticas no Brasil era bastante desolador: a pouca informação, conjugada ao tradicionalismo conservador das elites vigentes deixavam o cenário da pintura a depender ainda de ecos das já ultrapassadas correntes artísticas européias.Nesse contexto, tornaram-se muito importantes as exposições de Lasar Segall, em 1913, e de Anita Malfatti, em 1917, esta duramente criticada. Esses dois episódios fazem parte da história de um movimento em direção às correntes modernistas européias, que iria culminar na Semana de Arte Moderna de 1922. Di Cavalcanti já era um artista de talento bastante reconhecido nessa época, e sua atuação em 1922 foi essencial: o artista foi um dos idealizadores da Semana de Arte Moderna e uma referência importantíssima para todo o grupo modernista e, desde então, para a história das artes plásticas no Brasil. Em 1914, a revista Fon-Fon publicou seus desenhos de caricaturas. Matriculou-se na Faculdade de Direito dois anos depois e em 1917, mudou-se para São Paulo, não tendo terminado o curso. Conviveu com Mario e Oswald de Andrade, Tarsila, Anita e Brecheret. Interessado em pintura, frequentou, em São Paulo, o ateliê do pintor George Elpons, um alemão de influências impressionistas. É considerado, entretanto, um autodidata. Di Cavalcanti foi o idealizador da Semana de Arte Moderna de 1922. Participou de sua organização, fez os catálogos e programas e expôs doze pinturas. Entre 1923 e 1925, viveu em Paris, época em que entrou em contato com Picasso, Braque e Matisse. O Beijo data dessa época, evocando uma atmosfera romântica de sua juventude. Em viagem à Itália, pôde ver os clássicos, que contribuiram para sua formação de pintor. Teve influências, também, de Delacroix, de Gauguin e dos muralistas mexicanos. Filiou-se ao Partido Comunista e a partir de então, as temáticas sociais e nacionais tornaram-se presentes em suas obras. Retornou a Paris em 1937, onde viveu até 1940. Mulher Sentada, exemplifica grande parte de sua produção, marcada pela temática da sensualidade da mulata brasileira. Executou vários painéis, publicou álbuns com gravuras e serigrafias, ilustrou livros, bilhetes de loteria e desenhou jóias. Escreveu crônicas e comentários para jornais e revistas. Participou das I, II (prêmio de Melhor Pintor Nacional) e VII Bienais de São Paulo, da XXVIII Bienal de Veneza, além de inúmeras exposições no Brasil e no exterior. Morreu em 1976, no Rio de Janeiro.

Obras que usamos no Abajur: “Mulheres e Frutas”, “Murais” e “Carnaval”.

Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine - Laurel as of Lavoisier ( Paris , 26 August as of — Paris , 8 May as of 1794) he went um chemical French , considered the author from the Chemical moderate. It was the first scientist the one enunciation early days from the preservation from the essence. Additionally he identified AND I knocked the one oxigênio , denied the theory flogística AND participou at the reform from the tarriff schedule chemical. The employments as of Lavoisier assinalam , at the 18th century , the beginning from the Chemical moderate. He wrote um ample Treated Elementary as of Chemical , assuming the one inspeção national of the corporations as of fabrication as of black powder AND he went levy as of revenue , duty by whom he went guilhotinado during the period as of Terror during the Revolution French. Aside from chemical Lavoisier as well he went um funded.

Les Œuvres de Lavoisier

Le Centre de Recherche en Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques (CRHST Unité Mixte de Recherche n°2139 CNRS/Cité des Sciences) en collaboration avec Panopticon Lavoisier, a numérisé et présente ici, au format html et en mode image, les six volumes (4.594 pages) des Œuvres d'Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794), publiés aux frais de l’Etat de 1862 à 1893, ainsi qu’un certain nombre de textes complémentaires, parfois inédits, qui auraient dû figurer dans de véritables œuvres complètes. À terme, nous nous proposons d’offrir aussi, pour chacun de ces textes, les références archivistiques et bibliographiques, les corrections nécessaires et toutes les précisions utiles aux chercheurs.Ce site web, dirigé par Pietro Corsi (Université de Paris 1, EHESS, directeur du CRHST) est une réalisation du pôle HSTL du CRHST. Responsable informatique : Stéphane Pouyllau. Réalisation des textes : Sarah Bendaoud, Raphaël Bange, Josquin Debaz, Emilie Lacroix, Vincent Leguy, Elena Pasquinelli, Delphine Usal.Les documents eux-mêmes sont également disponibles sur le site du Panopticon Lavoisier, établi par Marco Beretta et Andrea Scotti, avec le soutien du CRHST, du Comité Lavoisier de l’Académie des sciences, de l'Institut et Musée d'Histoire des sciences de Florence (Italie), du Conservatoire national des arts-et-métiers et de l’Institut culturel italien de Paris. Ce site présente également l’inventaire du fonds Lavoisier, conservé aux Archives de l’Académie des sciences, principale source de toute étude sur les travaux et la vie du père de la révolution chimique, qui fut aussi un grand commis de l’Etat. Les documents sont disponibles avec l'inventaire du fonds Lavoisier (5300 manuscrits), le catalogue des instruments (516), le catalogue de la bibliothèque (2600 titres), l'inventaire des minéraux et les bibliographies de et sur Lavoisier.

Nomes dos componentes: Carolina Ribeiro 21
Gabriela Araújo 29
Gessyca Alonso 30
Izabela Duque 33
Juliana Alves 38

Modernismo

Chama-se genericamente modernismo (ou movimento moderno) o conjunto de movimentos culturais, escolas e estilos que permearam as artes e o design da primeira metade do século XX. Apesar de ser possível encontrar pontos de convergência entre os vários movimentos, eles em geral se diferenciam e até mesmo se antagonizam.
Encaixam-se nesta classificação a literatura, a arquitetura, design, pintura, escultura e a música modernas.
O movimento moderno baseou-se na idéia de que as formas "tradicionais" das artes plásticas, literatura, design, organização social e da vida cotidiana tornaram-se ultrapassados, e que fazia-se fundamental deixá-los de lado e criar no lugar uma nova cultura. Esta constatação apoiou a idéia de re-examinar cada aspecto da existência, do comércio à filosofia, com o objetivo de achar o que seriam as "marcas antigas" e substituí-las por novas formas, e possivelmente melhores, de se chegar ao "progresso". Em essência, o movimento moderno argumentava que as novas realidades do século XX eram permanentes e iminentes, e que as pessoas deveriam se adaptar as suas visões-de-mundo a fim de aceitar que o que era novo era também bom e belo.
A palavra moderno também é utilizada em contraponto ao que é ultrapassado. Neste sentido ela é sinônimo de contemporâneo, embora do ponto de vista histórico-cultural, moderno e contemporâneo abrangem contextos bastante diversos.

Tarsila do Amaral

A artista plástica paulista é a pintora mais representativa da primeira fase do movimento modernista brasileiro. Seu quadro Abaporu, de 1928, inaugura o Movimento Antropofágico nas artes plásticas.
Começou a aprender pintura em 1917, com Pedro Alexandrino. Mais tarde, estuda com George Fischer Elphons. Em 1920, viaja a Paris e freqüenta a Académie Julien, onde é orientada por Émile Renard. Na França, conhece Fernand Léger e participa do Salão Oficial dos Artistas Franceses de 1922, desenvolvendo técnicas influenciadas pelo cubismo. De volta ao Brasil, em 1922, une-se a Anita Malfatti, Menotti del Picchia, Mário de Andrade e Oswald de Andrade, formando o chamado Grupo dos Cinco, que defende as idéias da Semana de Arte Moderna e toma a frente do movimento modernista no país.
Casa-se com Oswald de Andrade em 1926 e, no mesmo ano, realiza sua primeira exposição individual, na Galeria Percier, em Paris. A partir de então, suas obras adquirem fortes características primitivistas e nativistas e passam a ser associadas aos Movimentos Pau-Brasil e Antropofágico, idealizados pelo marido. Em 1933, passa a desenvolver uma pintura mais ligada a temas sociais, da qual são exemplos as telas Operários e Segunda Classe. Expõe nas 1ª e 2ª Bienais de São Paulo e ganha uma retrospectiva no Museu de Arte Moderna de São Paulo (MAM) em 1960. É tema de sala especial na Bienal de São Paulo de 1963 e, no ano seguinte, apresenta-se na 32ª Bienal de Veneza.
Apesar de integrar-se ao Modernismo que surge no Brasil não participou da "Semana de 22"

Obra: Sol Poente (1929)
Partindo de um desenho ou de um guache como o pintor francês Fernand Léger costumava fazer, Tarsila constrói suas pinturas com desenhos preparatórios. A mostra tem uma temperatura francesa e é uma extraordinária ponte entre a cor em Paris naquele momento e o que se projetava como um Brasil moderno.

Nomes

Bruna Borges nº09

César Caressato nº23

Felipe Amorin nº28

Joice Garcia nº35

Luiza Volfa nº41

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin

Born 12 February 1809(1809-02-12)
Mount House, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England

Died 19 April 1882 (aged 73)
Down House, Kent, England

Residence England

Nationality British

Field Naturalist

Institutions Royal Geographical Society

Alma mater University of Edinburgh
University of Cambridge

Academic advisor Adam Sedgwick

Known for The Origin of Species
Natural selection

Notable prizes Royal Medal (1853)
Wollaston Medal (1859)
Copley Medal (1864)

Religion Church of England, though Unitarian

family background, Agnostic after 1851

History

Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist. After becoming eminent among scientists for his field work and inquiries into geology, he proposed and provided scientific evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from one or a few common ancestors through the process of natural selection. The fact that evolution occurs became accepted by the scientific community and the general public in his lifetime, while his theory of natural selection came to be widely seen as the primary explanation of the process of evolution in the 1930s, and now forms the basis of modern evolutionary theory. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery remains the foundation of biology, as it provides a unifying logical explanation for the diversity of life.

Darwin developed his interest in natural history while studying first medicine at Edinburgh University, then theology at Cambridge. His five-year voyage on the Beagle established him as a geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838. Having seen others attacked as heretics for such ideas, he confided only in his closest friends and continued his extensive research to meet anticipated objections. In 1858, Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay describing a similar theory, causing the two to publish their theories early in a joint publication.

His 1859 book On the Origin of Species established evolution by common descent as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. He examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.

In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.

Early life

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, the Mount. He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin, and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin on his father's side, and of Josiah Wedgwood on his mother's side. Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, made a nod toward convention by having baby Charles baptized in the Anglican Church. Nonetheless, Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother, and in 1817, Charles joined the day school, run by its preacher. In July of that year, when Charles was eight years old, his mother died. From September 1818, he attended the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.

Darwin spent the summer of 1825 helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire as an apprentice doctor. In the autumn, he went to the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, to study medicine, but he was revolted by the brutality of surgery and neglected his medical studies. He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of the South American rainforest. Later, in The Descent of Man, he used this experience as evidence that "Negroes and Europeans" were closely related despite superficial differences in appearance.

In Darwin's second year, he joined the Plinian Society, a student group interested in natural history. He became a keen pupil of Robert Edmund Grant, a proponent of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of evolution by acquired characteristics, which Charles's grandfather Erasmus had also advocated. On the shores of the Firth of Forth, Darwin joined in Grant's investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. These studies found evidence for homology, the radical theory that all animals have similar organs which differ only in complexity, thus showing common descent. In March 1827, Darwin made a presentation to the Plinian of his own discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. He also sat in on Robert Jameson's natural history course, learning about stratigraphic geology, receiving training in classifying plants, and assisting with work on the extensive collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.

In 1827, his father, unhappy at his younger son's lack of progress, shrewdly enrolled him in a Bachelor of Arts course at Christ's College, Cambridge to qualify as a clergyman, expecting him to get a good income as an Anglican parson. However, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying. Along with his cousin William Darwin Fox, he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of beetles. Fox introduced him to the Reverend John Stevens Henslow, professor of botany, for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow's natural history course and became his favourite pupil, known to the dons as "the man who walks with Henslow". When exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and received private instruction from Henslow. Darwin was particularly enthusiastic about the writings of William Paley, including the argument for divine design in nature. It has been argued that Darwin's enthusiasm for Paley's religious adaptationism paradoxically played a role even later, when Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection. In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in theology and, having scraped through in classics, mathematics and physics, came tenth out of a pass list of 178.

Residential requirements kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. Following Henslow's example and advice, he was in no rush to take Holy Orders. Inspired by Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative, he planned to visit the Madeira Islands with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick and, in the summer, went with him to assist in mapping strata in Wales. After a fortnight with student friends at Barmouth, he returned home to find a letter from Henslow recommending Darwin as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for the unpaid position of gentleman's companion to Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle, which was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. His father objected to the planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to his son's participation.

Overwork, illness, and marriage

As well as launching into this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. While still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. He agreed to unrealistic dates for this and for a book on South American Geology supporting Lyell's ideas. Darwin finished writing his Journal around 20 June 1837 just as Queen Victoria came to the throne, but then had its proofs to correct.

Darwin's health suffered from the pressure. On 20 September 1837, he had "palpitations of the heart". On doctor's advice that a month of recuperation was needed, he went to Shrewsbury then on to visit his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Jos pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms. This inspired a talk which Darwin gave to the Geological Society on 1 November, the first demonstration of the role of earthworms in soil formation.

William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After first declining this extra work, he accepted the post in March 1838.Despite the grind of writing and editing, remarkable progress was made on transmutation. While keeping his developing ideas secret, Darwin took every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.Over time his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates. He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an ape in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its child-like behaviour.

The strain took its toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of Darwin's illness was unknown during his lifetime, and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent attempts at diagnosis have suggested Chagas disease caught from insect bites in South America, Ménière's disease, or various psychological illnesses as possible causes, without any conclusive results.

On 23 June 1838, he took a break from the pressure of work and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads", horizontal ledges cut into the hillsides. He thought that these were raised beaches: they were later shown to have been shorelines of a glacial lake.

Charles chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit Emma on 29 July 1838. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.

Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included "for amusement" the 6th edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population which calculates from the birth rate that human population could double every 25 years, but in practice growth is kept in check by death, disease, wars and famine. Darwin was well prepared to see at once that this also applied to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. This would result in the formation of new species. On 28 September 1838 he noted this insight, describing it as a kind of wedging, forcing adapted structures into gaps in the economy of nature as weaker structures were thrust out. He now had a theory by which to work, and over the following months compared farmers picking the best breeding stock to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of [every] newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected", and thought this analogy "the most beautiful part of my theory".

On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness, but her upbringing as a very devout Anglican led her to express fears that his lapses of faith could endanger her hopes to meet in the afterlife. While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. The marriage was arranged for 24 January 1839, but the Wedgwoods set the date back. On the 24th, Darwin was honoured by being elected as Fellow of the Royal Society.

On 29 January 1839, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.

Names: Bruna Borges, 09 3ºB

César Caressato, 23

Felipe Amorim, 28

Joice Garcia, 35

Luiza Volfa, 41

Modernismo
O Modernismo Brasileiro é um movimento de amplo espectro cultural, desencadeado tardiamente nos anos 20, nele convergindo elementos das vanguardas acontecidas na Europa antes da Primeira Guerra Mundial - C2i0N0e, Cubismo e Futurismo - assimiladas antropofagicamente em fragmentos justapostos e misturados. A predominância de valores expressionistas presentes nas obras de precursores como Lasar Segall, Anita Malfatti e Victor Brecheret e no avançar do nosso Modernismo, a convergência de elementos cubo-futuristas e posteriormente a emergência do surrealismo que estão na pintura de Tarsila do Amaral, Vicente do Rego Monteiro e Ismael Nery. É interessante observar que a disciplina e a ordem da composição cubista constituem estrutura básica das obras de Tarsila, Antonio Gomide e Di Cavalcanti. No avançar dos anos 20, a pintura dos modernistas brasileiros vai misturar ao revival das artes egípcia, pré colombiana e vietnamita, elementos do Art Déco.
São Paulo se caracteriza como o centro das idéias modernistas, onde se encontra o fermento do novo. Do encontro de jovens intelectuais com artistas plásticos eclodirá a vanguarda modernista. Diferentemente do Rio de Janeiro, reduto da burguesia tradicionalista e conservadora, São Paulo, incentivado pelo progresso e pelo afluxo de imigrantes italianos será o cenário propício para o desenvolvimento do processo do Modernismo. Este processo teve eventos como a primeira exposição de arte moderna com obras expressionistas de Lasar Segall em 1913, o escândalo provocado pela exposição de Anita Malfatti entre dezembro de 1917 e janeiro de 1918 e a 'descoberta' do escultor Victor Brecheret em 1920. Com maior ou menor peso estes três artistas constituem, no período heróico do Modernismo Brasileiro, os antecedentes da Semana de 22.
A Semana de Arte Moderna de 22 é o ápice deste processo que visava atualização das artes, e a sua identidade nacional. Pensada por Di Cavalcanti como um evento que causasse impacto e escândalo. Esta Semana proporcionaria as bases teóricas que contribuirão muito para o desenvolvimento artístico e intelectual da Primeira Geração Modernista e o seu encaminhamento, nos anos 30 e 40, na fase da Modernidade Brasileira.
Tarsila do Amaral

Tarsila do Amaral (Capivari, 1 de setembro de 1886 - São Paulo, 17 de janeiro de 1973) foi uma pintora brasileira.
A artista plástica paulista é a pintora mais representativa da primeira fase do movimento modernista brasileiro. Seu quadro Abaporu, de 1928, inaugura o Movimento Antropofágico nas artes plásticas.
Começou a aprender pintura em 1917, com Pedro Alexandrino. Mais tarde, estuda com George Fischer Elphons. Em 1920, viaja a Paris e freqüenta a Académie Julien, onde é orientada por Émile Renard. Na França, conhece Fernand Léger e participa do Salão Oficial dos Artistas Franceses de 1922, desenvolvendo técnicas influenciadas pelo cubismo. De volta ao Brasil, em 1922, une-se a Anita Malfatti, Menotti del Picchia, Mário de Andrade e Oswald de Andrade, formando o chamado Grupo dos Cinco, que defende as idéias da Semana de Arte Moderna e toma a frente do movimento modernista no país.
Casa-se com Oswald de Andrade em 1926 e, no mesmo ano, realiza sua primeira exposição individual, na Galeria Percier, em Paris. A partir de então, suas obras adquirem fortes características primitivistas e nativistas e passam a ser associadas aos Movimentos Pau-Brasil e Antropofágico, idealizados pelo marido. Em 1933, passa a desenvolver uma pintura mais ligada a temas sociais, da qual são exemplos as telas Operários e Segunda Classe. Expõe nas 1ª e 2ª Bienais de São Paulo e ganha uma retrospectiva no Museu de Arte Moderna de São Paulo (MAM) em 1960. É tema de sala especial na Bienal de São Paulo de 1963 e, no ano seguinte, apresenta-se na 32ª Bienal de Veneza.
Apesar de integrar-se ao Modernismo que surge no Brasil não participou da "Semana de 22"

Obra:Antropofagia - Nesta tela temos a junção do "Abaporu" com "A Negra". Este aparece invertido em relação ao quadro original. Trata-se de uma das telas mais significativas de Tarsila e o colecionador Eduardo Costantini, dono do "Abaporu", está muito interessado no quadro e já ofereceu uma soma muito alta por ele (que foi recusada pelos atuais donos).

Abajur
Nosso abajur foi feito com uma caixa de papelão,papel toalha,tintas nas cores rosa e verde e um cano de pvc.Como montamos:
· Cortamos o papelão em três partes, formando um triângulo.
· Recortamos outra pedaço de papelão na forma sexagonal.
· Colamos o triângulo no cano e o cano na base sexagonal
· Usamos cola e papel toalha para endurecer o papelão
· E por ultimo pintamos o abajur inteiro e colamos as imagens do modernismo dentro do triângulo.

Alberto Santos-Dumont
Aviator
Born: 20 July 1873
Died: 23 July 1932(suicide)
Birthplace: Cabangu, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Best known as: Brazilian "Father of Aviation"
For his pioneering work in manned flight Alberto Santos-Dumont is officially called the "Father of Aviation" in his native country of Brazil. Santos-Dumont left Brazil when he was eighteen and moved to Paris, France, where he applied his mechanical skills and considerable inheritance to building and flying aircraft. He first worked on balloons in the late 1890s, then turned his attention to "heavier-than-air" machines. In 1906 Santos-Dumont flew 715 feet and became internationally famous as the first man to fly an airplane -- a claim that was later denied him when it turned out that The Wright Brothers had flown their own plane secretly in 1903. Unlike the Wright Brothers, Santos-Dumont was a flamboyant socialite who loved the limelight -- he used to fly around Paris in his powered balloons, hobnobbing with the rich and famous. In 1909 he built the "Demoiselle," a lightweight monoplane that captured the public's attention and became a popular seller in England and France. In 1910 he retired due to illness (now described as multiple sclerosis), and in 1928 he returned to Brazil, where he was greeted as a national hero. Apparently despondent over the militarization of airships, he committed suicide in 1932.
Extra credit: The Demoiselle, also known as the Grasshopper, wasn't the only thing that was lightweight: Santos-Dumont reportedly weighed only about 100 pounds... U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong walked on the moon on 20 July 1969, the 96th anniversary of Santos-Dumont's birth.

Nomes: Caio Roldan n°16
Camila n°17
Caroline n°22
Jorge n°37

MODERNISMO E PROJETO

A primeira fase do Modernismo (TARSILA DO AMARAL)

O movimento modernista no Brasil contou com duas fases: a primeira foi de 1922 a 1930 e a segunda de 1930 a 1945. a primeira fase caracterizou-se pelas tentativas de solidificação do movimento renovador e pela divulgação de obras e idéias modernistas.
Os escritores de maior destaque dessa fase defendiam estas propostas: reconstrução da cultura brasileira sobre bases nacionais; promoção de uma revisão crítica de nosso passado histórico e de nossas tradições culturais; eliminação definitiva do nosso complexo de colonizados, apegados a valores estrangeiros. Portanto, todas elas estão relacionadas com a visão nacionalista, porém crítica, da realidade brasileira.
Várias obras, grupos, movimentos, revistas e manifestos ganharam o cenário intelectual brasileiro, numa investigação profunda e por vezes radical de novos conteúdos e de novas formas de expressão.
Entre os fatos mais importantes, destacam-se a publicação da revista Klaxon, lançada para dar continuidade ao processo de divulgação das idéias modernistas, e o lançamento de quatro movimentos culturais: o Pau-Brasil, o Verde-Amarelismo, a Antropofagia e a Anta.
O movimento Pau-Brasil defendia a criação de uma poesia primitivista, construída com base na revisão crítica de nosso passado histórico e cultural e na aceitação e valorização das riquezas e contrastes da realidade e da cultura brasileiras.
A Antropofagia, a exemplo dos rituais antropofágicos dos índios brasileiros, nos quais eles devoram seus inimigos para lhes extrair força, Oswald propõe a devoração simbólica da cultura do colonizador europeu, sem com isso perder nossa identidade cultural.
Em oposição a essas tendências, os movimentos Verde-Amarelismo e Anta, defendiam um nacionalismo ufanista, com evidente inclinação para o nazifascismo.
Dentre os muitos escritores que fizeram parte da primeira geração do Modernismo destacamos Oswald de Andrade, Mário de Andrade, Manuel Bandeira, Alcântara Machado, Menotti del Picchia, Raul Bopp, Ronald de Carvalho e Guilherme de Almeida.

OBRA DE TARSILA DO AMARAL(COMENTÁRIO)

OPERÁRIOS - Tarsila do Amaral, nascida em uma fazenda no interior de São Paulo, pintou o quadro "Operários" após uma viagem que a artista fez para a antiga URSS (União das Repúblicas Soviéticas Socialistas). O quadro retrata várias rostos, representando operáios, e uma fábrica ao fundo.
A maioria dos rostos pintados na tela é de personalidades intelectuais e artísticas da época. Tarsila do Amaral retratou na tela Mário de Andrade, Anita Malfadi, Plínio Salgado, Oswald de Andrade e outros.

Aline Brito nº 03
Amanda Nicoli 06
Bruno Chescon 12
Karine Chrsitina 39
Vinicius Venancio 45

Modernismo - Graciliano Ramos

Características
Repensar a história nacional com humor e ironia - " Em outubro de 1930 / Nós fizemos — que animação! — / Um pic-nic com carabinas." (Festa Familiar - Murilo Mendes)
Verso livre e poesia sintética - " Stop. / A vida parou / ou foi o automóvel?" (Cota Zero, Carlos Drummond de Andrade)
Nova postura temática - questionar mais a realidade e a si mesmo enquanto indivíduo
Tentativa de interpretar o estar-no-mundo e seu papel de poeta
Literatura mais construtiva e mais politizada.
Surge uma corrente mais voltada para o espiritualismo e o intimismo (Cecília, Murilo Mendes, Jorge de Lima e Vinícius)
Aprofundamento das relações do eu com o mundo
Consciência da fragilidade do eu - "Tenho apenas duas mãos / e o sentimento do mundo" (Carlos Drummond de Andrade - Sentimento do Mundo)
Perspectiva única para enfrentar os tempos difíceis é a união, as soluções coletivas - " O presente é tão grande, ano nos afastemos, / Ano nos afastemos muito, vamos de mãos dadas." (Carlos Drummond de Andrade - Mãos dadas)

Prosa
Romances caracterizados pela denúncia social, verdadeiro documento da realidade brasileira, atingindo elevado grau de tensão nas relações do eu com o mundo. Uma das principais características do romance brasileiro é o encontro do escritor com seu povo. Há uma busca do homem brasileiro nas diversas regiões, por isso o regionalismo ganha importância, com destaque às relações do personagem com o meio natural e social.
Os escritores nordestinos merecem destaque especial, por sua denúncia da realidade da região pouco conhecida nos grandes centros. O 1° romance nordestino foi "A Bagaceira" de José Américo de Almeida. Esses romances retratam o surgimento da realidade capitalista, a exploração das pessoas, movimentos migratórios, miséria, fome, seca etc.


Amanda no. 05
Ana Paula no. 07
Bruna no. 10
Débora no. 26

Biografia Di Cavalcanti
Nascido no Rio de Janeiro em 1897, estreou como desenhista no salão das Humoristas em 1916. Após se mudar para São Paulo em 1917, conviveu com Mário e Oswald de Andrade, Tarsila do Amaral, Anita Mafalti e Brecheret. Freqüentou também o ateliê do pintor impressionista alemão George Elpons.
Foi dele a idéia da Semana de Arte Moderna, que aconteceu no Teatro Municipal de 1922. Era uma época de muitas novidades, como o carro, a fotografia e o cinema mudo. Então a vida das pessoas estava mudando muito rápido, mas a poesia e a pintura contivuavam a seguir as antigas regras, em sua maioria francesas.
Di Cavalcanti foi também um intelectual bem informado sobre as vanguardas artísticas de seu tempo. Em 1921, foi convidado a ilustrar o livro "Balada do Cárcere de Reading", de Oscar Wilde, um dos mais renomados escritores da época. Neste mesmo ano se casa com Maria, sua prima em segundo grau.
A semana de 22 foi uma espécie de festival em que modernistas brasileiros mostraram seus trabalhos. Além de expor suas telas, Di Cavalcanti desenhou o programa e os convites da mostra. Em seguida, em 1923, viajou para a Europa para estudar e lá conheceu e conviveu com grandes mestres da pintura, como Picasso, Braque, Matisse e Lèger. Di Cavalcanti também teve influências de Paul Gauguin, de Delacroix e dos muralistas mexicanos. O contato que teve com o cubismo de Picasso, o expressionismo e outras correntes artísticas de vanguarda, contribuiu para aumentar sua disposição em quebrar paradigmas e inovar em sua arte, sem perder de vista uma estética que abordava a sensualidade tropical.
Na volta ao Brasil, retratou temas nacionais e populares, como favelas, operários, soldados, marinheiros e festas populares. Também ficou conhecido por seus belos retratos de mulatas, fase em que consagrou a modelo e atriz Marina Montini.
Em 1926, já no Brasil, ingressa no Partido Comunista e continua a fazer ilustrações. Após nova viagem a Paris, faz os painéis de decoração do Teatro João Caetano do Rio de Janeiro. Em 1932, durante a Revolução Constitucionalista, Di Cavalcanti é preso pela primeira vez. Após ser libertado, se casa com Noêmia Mourão, sua segunda esposa.
O pintor recebeu prêmios importantes, como a "Medalha de Ouro" na exposição de Paris (1937) e o título de "Melhor Pintor Brasileiro" na II Bienal de São Paulo (1953), junto com Volpi.
Di Cavalcanti era um artista de muitas habilidades. Além de quadros e ilustrações para revistas, fez desenhos para jóias, tapetes e painéis. Morreu na sua cidade natal em 1976.

Manacá (Tarsila do Amaral)

O título da pintura alude a um conhecido arbusto ornamental brasileiro. A pintura representa um manacá, no centro, duas montanhas ao fundo, e, no primeiro plano, cactos e flores. Ao contrário da ilustração de um livro de botânica, que poderia procurar descrever o manacá com o maior número possível de detalhes, essa representação é estilizada, ou seja, simplifica bastante as formas representadas. No caso deste manacá, o tronco e os galhos foram reduzidos a uma forma retangular verde, com um sombreado que sugere volume cilíndrico. A copa foi reduzida a quatro flores no centro com oito folhas ao redor, distribuídas de maneira a formar um motivo decorativo, semelhante às rosáceas dos vitrais de igrejas. Além da representação bastante estilizada, destaca-se uma outra licença poética, ou melhor, pictórica: o manacá tem uma flor rosa e três roxas. Como se sabe, na natureza, o manacá tem flores de uma só cor, ou rosa ou roxo.

Tarsila do Amaral
Tarsila do Amaral nasceu em 1º de setembro de 1886 na Fazenda São Bernardo, município de Capivari, interior do Estado de São Paulo.
O Pai de Tarsila José Estanislau do Amaral herdou apreciável fortuna e diversas fazendas nas quais Tarsila passou a infância e adolescência.
Tarsila Estudou no Colégio Sion, e completou seus Estudos em Barcelona, na Espanha, onde pinta com seus 16 anos de Idade seu 1º Quadro denominado "Sagrado Coração de Jesus". Em 1906 Casa-se com André Teixeira Pinto com quem teve sua única filha, Dulce. Separa-se dele e começa a estudar escultura em 1916 com Zadig e Mantovani em São Paulo.
Em 1920 embarca para a Europa com o objetivo de Ingressar na "Académie Julian", em Paris. Frequentou também o ateliê de "Émile Renard".
Em 1922 tem uma tela sua admitida no Salão Oficial dos Artistas Franceses. Nesse mesmo ano regressa ao Brasil e se integra com os intelectuais do grupo modernista e faz parte do "grupo dos cinco" juntamente com, Oswald de Andrade, Mário de Andrade e Menotti del Picchia. Nessa época começa seu namoro com o escritor Oswald de Andrade.
Em 1923 Tarsila volta à Europa e começa a ter contato com os modernistas: Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger e Blaise Cendrars, que visita o Brasil no ano de 1924. Foi também no mesmo ano que Tarsila se casa com Oswald de Andrade que rompem o seu relacionamento no ano de 1930.
Tarsila não terminou seus relacionamentos por aí no ano de 1934 ela passa a viver com o escritor Luís Martins por quase vinte anos. De 1936 à 1952, trabalha como colunista nos "Diários Associados".
Tarsila do Amaral falece em São Paulo no dia 17 de Janeiro de 1973.

Obras

Tarsila do Amaral possui um belo Acervo de Obras que estão dividos em vários museus de Todo o Mundo dentre as suas Obras as mais importantes foram: "Pau-Brasil", que foi iniciada em 1924, uma importante Obra dotada de cores e temas acentuadamente brasileiros.
Em 1928 Pinta a Obra mais Conhecida de Tarsila que é o "Abaporu", que foi criada por Tarsila para dar de presente de aniversário a Oswald que se empolga com a Tela e cria o movimento "Antropofágico".
Em 1933 pinta o quadro "Operários" e dá início à pintura social no Brasil. No ano seguinte participa do I Salão Paulista de Belas Artes.
Nos anos 50 volta ao tema "Pau brasil". Participa em 1951 da I Bienal de São Paulo. Em 1963 tem sala especial na VII Bienal de São Paulo e no ano seguinte participação especial na XXXII Bienal de Veneza.
Mais Tarsila deixou muitas obras importantes como: Antropofagia, Urutu, Lago, Sol Poente, entre outras... que jamais serão Esquecidas.

Abajur

O abajur foi feito com coador de café usado, pedra de concreto celular, arame e suporte de antena parabólica para sustentar a cúpula do abajur. O esqueleto da cúpula foi feito com arame, depois foi envolvido com 6 camadas de coador reciclado e cola branca para impermeabilizar, as pedras foram cortadas em quadrados e coladas uma sobre a outra, formando assim a base. A obra foi retratada na cúpula com flores que foram recortadas em coadores de café mais escuros.

NOMES: Aline Ap. Pereira 02
Aline Gonçalves 04
Bianca Arcieri 08
Carolina Alexandre 19 3º B
Danyelle Z. Iglesias 24

Niels Born

Niels Henrick David Bohr (Copenhaga, 7 of October of 1885 - Copenhaga, 18 of November of 1962) was a Danish physicist whose works had contributed decisively for the understanding of the atomic structure and the quantum physics. Its father, Christian Bohr, were physiology professor, and its mother, Ellen (name of Adler bachelor), came from a Jewish family. One took leave in its native city in 1911 and worked with Joseph John Thomson and Ernest Rutherford in England. In 1913, applying the theory of the quantification to the elétrons/electrões of the atomic model of Rutherford, she obtained to interpret some of the properties of the spectral series of hydrogen and the structure of the periodic system of the elements. She formulated the principle of the correspondence and, in 1928, of the complementaridade. She still studied the nuclear model of the liquid drop, and before the discovery of the plutónio, she foresaw the property of the split, analogous to the one of the U-235. Bohr received the Prémio Nobel de Física in 1922. Its theory for the explanation of the atomic model considered by Rutherford in 1911, taking in account the quantum theory (formulated for Max Planck in 1900), was not taken the serious one. Later, in elapsing of the decade and the decade of 1920, some physicists had helped to create the existing model today. Between these physicists we can cite Einstein, Of Broglie, Schrödinger, Heisenberg, Of Pauli, among others. [ to edit ] Life and workmanship When still she was student, an announcement, of the Academy of Sciences of Copenhaga, a prize for who decided one definitive scientific problem took it to carry through it a theoretical and experimental inquiry on the tension of the surface provoked for the spurt oscillation fluid. This work, taken the handle in the laboratory of its father, gained the prize (the gold medal) and was published in "Transactions of the Royal Society", in 1908. Bohr continued its inquiries and its thesis of doutoramento happened on the properties of metals with the aid of the theory of electrons that still today it is a classic in the field of the physics. In this Bohr research it was collated with the implications of the quantum theory of Planck. In the Autumn of 1911, Bohr was changed for Cambridge, where it worked in the Cavendish Laboratory under the orientation of J. J. Thomson. In the Spring of 1912, Niels Bohr started to work in the Laboratory of Rutherford Professor, in Manchester. In this laboratory, Bohr carried through a work on the absorption of rays alpha, that it was published in the "Philosophical Magazine", in 1913. However, Bohr started to dedicate to it the study of the structure of the atom, being based on the discovery of the atomic nucleus, carried through for Rutherford.
In the same year, Bohr married Margrethe Norlund, who would come to have six children. When it returned to the Denmark in 1913, Bohr looked for to extend to the atomic model considered by Rutherford the quantum concepts of Planck. Bohr believed that, using the quantum theory of Planck, it would be possible to create a new atomic model, capable to explain the form as eletróns absorbs and emits radiating energy. These phenomena were particularly visible in the analysis of the luminous specters produced by the different elements. In contrast of the produced one for the solar light, these specters present lines of light with specific, separate localizations for dark areas. No theory obtains until then explaining the cause of this distribution. In 1913, Bohr, studying the hydrogen atom, obtained to formulate a new model atomic. Bohr concluded that eletrón of the atom did not only emit radiations while it remained in the same orbit, emitting them when more distant orbit of the nucleus is dislocated from a level of bigger energy (, where its - of the electron - kinetic energy tends to diminish while that its potential energy tends to increase; but, its total energy increases) for another one of lesser energy (less distant orbit, where its energy kinematics tends to increase and its potential energy tends to diminish; but, its total energy diminishes). The quantum theory allowed it to formulate this conception in more necessary way: the orbits would not be situated to any distances of the nucleus, for the the opposite, only some orbits would be possible, each one of them corresponding to a clear-cut level of energy of eletrón. The transistion of an orbit for the other would be made by jumps therefore, when absorbing energy, eletrón would jump for a externa(conceito orbit quantum) e, to the emitiz it, would pass to the other most internal one (concept photon). Each one of these emissions appears in the specter as a well located luminous line. theory of Bohr, that successively was enriched, represented a decisive step in the knowledge of the atom. Thus, the theory of Bohr allowed the elaboration of the quantum mechanics leaving of a solid experimental base. The publication of the theory on the constitution of the atom had an enormous repercussion in the scientific world. With only 28 years of age, Bohr was a famous physicist with one shining career. Of 1914 the 1916 were professor of Theoretical Physics in the University of Victoria, in Manchester. Later, it came back toward Copenhaga, where director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics in 1920 was nominated. In 1922, its contribution was internationally recognized when it received the Prémio Nobel from the Physics. In the same year, Bohr wrote the book "The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution", whose second edition was published in 1924. With the objective to compare the results gotten by means of the quantum mechanics with the results that, with the same system, if they would get in the classic mechanics, Bohr enunciated the principle of the correspondence. According to this principle, the classic mechanics represents the limit of the quantum mechanics when this deals with phenomena of the macrocospic world. Bohr still studied the interpretation of the structure of complex atoms, the nature of radiations X and the gradual variations of the chemical properties of the elements. Bohr was also dedicated to the study of the atomic nucleus. The model of nucleus in form of "water drop" showed favorable very for the interpretation of the fenómeno of the fissão of the Uranian one, that it opened way for the use of the nuclear energy. Bohr discovered that during the fissão of an atom of Uranian an enormous amount of energy was gotten loose and repaired then that it was about a new energy source of highest potentialities. Bohr, with the purpose to use to advantage this energy, was until Princeton, in the Philadelphia, where if it found with Einstein and Fermi to argue with these the problem In 1933, together with its Wheeler pupil, Bohr deepened the theory of the fissão, evidencing the basic paper of Uranian the 235. These studies had allowed shortly afterwards to foresee also the existence of a new element, discovered: the plutónio. In 1934, and published the book "Atomic Theory the Description of Nature", that it was reedited in 1961. In January of 1937, Bohr participated in the Fifth Conference of Theoretical Physics, in Washington, in which it defended the interpretation of L. Meitner and Otto R. Frisch, also of the Institute of Copenhaga, for the fissão of the Uranian one. According to this interpretation, an atomic nucleus of unstable mass was as a water drop that if breaches. Three weeks later, the beddings of the theory of the "water drop" had been published in the magazine "Physical Review". To this publication many had been followed others, all related with the atomic nucleus and the disposal and characteristics of the electrões that turn in lathe of it. One year after if having refugee in England, due to Nazi occupation of the Denmark, Bohr it was changed for the United States, where it occupied the position of consultant of the laboratory of atomic energy of Los Alamos. In this laboratory, some scientists initiated the construction of the atomic bomb Bohr, understanding the gravity of the situation and the danger that this bomb could represent for the humanity, directed it Churchill and Roosevelt, in one appeals to its responsibility of heads of State, trying to prevent the construction of the atomic bomb. But the attempt of Bohr was em.vão. In July of 1945 the first experimental atomic bomb blew up in Alamogordo. In August of this exactly year, an atomic bomb destroyed the city of Hiroshima. Three days later, one second bomb was launched in Nagasáqui. In 1945, finda the World War II, Bohr returned to the Denmark, where she was elect president of the Academy of Sciences. Bohr continued to support the advantages of the scientific contribution between the nations and for this he was promotional of organized scientific congresses periodically in the Europe and the United States. In 1950, Bohr wrote the "Open Letter" to the Nations Joined in defense of the preservation of the peace, for considered it as indispensable condition for the thought freedom and from research In 1957, Niels Bohr received the Prémio Atoms for the Peace At the same time, the Institute of Theoretical Physics, for directed it since 1920, was affirmed as one of the main intellectual centers of the Europe. Bohr died the 18 of November of 1962, one victim trombose, to the 77 years of age.

Bruno Kleber Nº 13
Caio Daniel Nº15
Guilherme Dias Nº31
Bruno Nº 46

Albert Einstein

Biography

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Aline Ap. n°2

Aline G. n°4

Bianca n°8

Caroline n°19

Danyelle n°24

Isaac Newton's Life

I INTRODUCTION

Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time. Born at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he attended school, he entered Cambridge University in 1661; he was elected a Fellow of Trinity College in 1667, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. He remained at the university, lecturing in most years, until 1696. Of these Cambridge years, in which Newton was at the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665-1666 (spent largely in Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge) as "the prime of my age for invention". During two to three years of intense mental effort he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) commonly known as the Principia, although this was not published until 1687.As a firm opponent of the attempt by King James II to make the universities into Catholic institutions, Newton was elected Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge to the Convention Parliament of 1689, and sat again in 1701-1702. Meanwhile, in 1696 he had moved to London as Warden of the Royal Mint. He became Master of the Mint in 1699, an office he retained to his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1671, and in 1703 he became President, being annually re-elected for the rest of his life. His major work, Opticks, appeared the next year; he was knighted in Cambridge in 1705.
As Newtonian science became increasingly accepted on the Continent, and especially after a general peace was restored in 1714, following the War of the Spanish Succession, Newton became the most highly esteemed natural philosopher in Europe. His last decades were passed in revising his major works, polishing his studies of ancient history, and defending himself against critics, as well as carrying out his official duties. Newton was modest, diffident, and a man of simple tastes. He was angered by criticism or opposition, and harboured resentment; he was harsh towards enemies but generous to friends. In government, and at the Royal Society, he proved an able administrator. He never married and lived modestly, but was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey.
Newton has been regarded for almost 300 years as the founding examplar of modern physical science, his achievements in experimental investigation being as innovative as those in mathematical research. With equal, if not greater, energy and originality he also plunged into chemistry, the early history of Western civilization, and theology; among his special studies was an investigation of the form and dimensions, as described in the Bible, of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.

II OPTICS

In 1664, while still a student, Newton read recent work on optics and light by the English physicists Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke; he also studied both the mathematics and the physics of the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes. He investigated the refraction of light by a glass prism; developing over a few years a series of increasingly elaborate, refined, and exact experiments, Newton discovered measurable, mathematical patterns in the phenomenon of colour. He found white light to be a mixture of infinitely varied coloured rays (manifest in the rainbow and the spectrum), each ray definable by the angle through which it is refracted on entering or leaving a given transparent medium. He correlated this notion with his study of the interference colours of thin films (for example, of oil on water, or soap bubbles), using a simple technique of extreme acuity to measure the thickness of such films. He held that light consisted of streams of minute particles. From his experiments he could infer the magnitudes of the transparent "corpuscles" forming the surfaces of bodies, which, according to their dimensions, so interacted with white light as to reflect, selectively, the different observed colours of those surfaces.The roots of these unconventional ideas were with Newton by about 1668; when first expressed (tersely and partially) in public in 1672 and 1675, they provoked hostile criticism, mainly because colours were thought to be modified forms of homogeneous white light. Doubts, and Newton's rejoinders, were printed in the learned journals. Notably, the scepticism of Christiaan Huygens and the failure of the French physicist Edmé Mariotte to duplicate Newton's refraction experiments in 1681 set scientists on the Continent against him for a generation. The publication of Opticks, largely written by 1692, was delayed by Newton until the critics were dead. The book was still imperfect: the colours of diffraction defeated Newton. Nevertheless, Opticks established itself, from about 1715, as a model of the interweaving of theory with quantitative experimentation.

III MATHEMATICS

In mathematics too, early brilliance appeared in Newton's student notes. He may have learnt geometry at school, though he always spoke of himself as self-taught; certainly he advanced through studying the writings of his compatriots William Oughtred and John Wallis, and of Descartes and the Dutch school. Newton made contributions to all branches of mathematics then studied, but is especially famous for his solutions to the contemporary problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves (differentiation) and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did Newton discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method of fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to Leibniz's later differential and integral calculus. Newton used the term "fluxion" (from Latin meaning "flow") because he imagined a quantity "flowing" from one magnitude to another. Fluxions were expressed algebraically, as Leibniz's differentials were, but Newton made extensive use also (especially in the Principia) of analogous geometrical arguments. Late in life, Newton expressed regret for the algebraic style of recent mathematical progress, preferring the geometrical method of the Classical Greeks, which he regarded as clearer and more rigorous.
Newton's work on pure mathematics was virtually hidden from all but his correspondents until 1704, when he published, with Opticks, a tract on the quadrature of curves (integration) and another on the classification of the cubic curves. His Cambridge lectures, delivered from about 1673 to 1683, were published in 1707.
The Calculus Priority DisputeNewton had the essence of the methods of fluxions by 1666. The first to become known, privately, to other mathematicians, in 1668, was his method of integration by infinite series. In Paris in 1675 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently evolved the first ideas of his differential calculus, outlined to Newton in 1677. Newton had already described some of his mathematical discoveries to Leibniz, not including his method of fluxions. In 1684 Leibniz published his first paper on calculus; a small group of mathematicians took up his ideas.
In the 1690s Newton's friends proclaimed the priority of Newton's methods of fluxions. Supporters of Leibniz asserted that he had communicated the differential method to Newton, although Leibniz had claimed no such thing. Newtonians then asserted, rightly, that Leibniz had seen papers of Newton's during a London visit in 1676; in reality, Leibniz had taken no notice of material on fluxions. A violent dispute sprang up, part public, part private, extended by Leibniz to attacks on Newton's theory of gravitation and his ideas about God and creation; it was not ended even by Leibniz's death in 1716. The dispute delayed the reception of Newtonian science on the Continent, and dissuaded British mathematicians from sharing the researches of Continental colleagues for a century.

IV MECHANICS AND GRAVITATION

According to the well-known story, it was on seeing an apple fall in his orchard at some time during 1665 or 1666 that Newton conceived that the same force governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.
Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to demonstrate the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to write the Principia.
Book I of the Principia states the foundations of the science of mechanics, developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round centres of force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To contemporaries who found the idea of attractions across empty space unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts of unseen particles.
Book II inaugurates the theory of fluids: Newton solves problems of fluids in movement and of motion through fluids. From the density of air he calculated the speed of sound waves.
Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth, and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.
Newton's work in mechanics was accepted at once in Britain, and universally after half a century. Since then it has been ranked among humanity's greatest achievements in abstract thought. It was extended and perfected by others, notably Pierre Simon de Laplace, without changing its basis and it survived into the late 19th century before it began to show signs of failing. See Quantum Theory; Relativity.

V ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY

Newton left a mass of manuscripts on the subjects of alchemy and chemistry, then closely related topics. Most of these were extracts from books, bibliographies, dictionaries, and so on, but a few are original. He began intensive experimentation in 1669, continuing till he left Cambridge, seeking to unravel the meaning that he hoped was hidden in alchemical obscurity and mysticism. He sought understanding of the nature and structure of all matter, formed from the "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles" that he believed God had created. Most importantly in the "Queries" appended to "Opticks" and in the essay "On the Nature of Acids" (1710), Newton published an incomplete theory of chemical force, concealing his exploration of the alchemists, which became known a century after his death.

VI HISTORICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL STUDIES

Newton owned more books on humanistic learning than on mathematics and science; all his life he studied them deeply. His unpublished "classical scholia"—explanatory notes intended for use in a future edition of the Principia—reveal his knowledge of pre-Socratic philosophy; he read the Fathers of the Church even more deeply. Newton sought to reconcile Greek mythology and record with the Bible, considered the prime authority on the early history of mankind. In his work on chronology he undertook to make Jewish and pagan dates compatible, and to fix them absolutely from an astronomical argument about the earliest constellation figures devised by the Greeks. He put the fall of Troy at 904 BC, about 500 years later than other scholars; this was not well received.

VII RELIGIOUS CONVICTIONS AND PERSONALITY

Newton also wrote on Judaeo-Christian prophecy, whose decipherment was essential, he thought, to the understanding of God. His book on the subject, which was reprinted well into the Victorian Age, represented lifelong study. Its message was that Christianity went astray in the 4th century AD, when the first Council of Nicaea propounded erroneous doctrines of the nature of Christ. The full extent of Newton's unorthodoxy was recognized only in the present century: but although a critic of accepted Trinitarian dogmas and the Council of Nicaea, he possessed a deep religious sense, venerated the Bible and accepted its account of creation. In late editions of his scientific works he expressed a strong sense of God's providential role in nature.

VIII PUBLICATIONS

Newton published an edition of Geographia generalis by the German geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the Principia (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729). This was followed by Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706. Posthumously published writings include The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728), The System of the World (1728), the first draft of Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John (1733).

Bibliografia:http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newtlife.html

Nomes:Bruna R. Nº11

Carolina 20

Débora 25

Jéssica 34

Renata 43

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